Cryptosporidium: Water Quality, Agriculture and Health Effects (II)

A computer-assisted laser scanning microscope equipped for confocal laser scanning and color video microscopy was used to examine Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in two agricultural soils, a barnyard sediment, and calf fecal samples. An agar smear technique was developed for enumerating oocysts in soil and barnyard sediment samples. Enhanced counting efficiency and sensitivity (detection limit, 5.2 X 10(2) oocysts . g [dry weight]-1) were achieved by using a semiautomatic counting procedure and confocal laser scanning microscopy to enumerate immunostained oocysts and fragments of oocysts in the barnyard sediment. An agarose-acridine orange mounting procedure was developed for high-resolution confocal optical sectioning of oocysts in soil. Stereo images of serial optical sections revealed the three-dimensional spatial relationships between immunostained oocysts and the acridine orange-stained soil matrix material. In these hydrated, pyrophosphate-dispersed soil preparations, oocysts were not found to be attached to soil particles. A fluorogenic dye permeability assay for oocyst viability was modified by adding an immunostaining step after application of the fluorogenic dyes propidium iodide and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. Comparison of conventional color epifluorescence and differential interference contrast images on one video monitor with comparable black-and-white laser-scanned confocal images on a second monitor allowed for efficient location and interpretation of fluorescently stained oocysts in the soil matrix. This multi-imaging procedure facilitated the interpretation. of the viability assay results by overcoming the uncertainties caused by matrix interference and background fluorescence. 13. Cracking the hard cases. Hays, S. M. and Cooke, L. Agric res. 44: 6 pp. 4-8. (June 1996). NAL Call #: 1.98-Ag84 Descriptors: agricultural-research, USDA, research-projects, cryptosporidium, protozoalinfections, leptospirosis, leptospira, strains, diagnostic-techniques, borrelia-burgdorferi, ixodes-scapularis, disease-vectors, diptera, pest-control, human-diseases, disease-control. 14. Cryptosporidial diarrhea in foals. Cohen, N. D. and Snowden, K. Compend contin educ pract vet. 18: 3 pp. 298-306, 313. (Mar 1996). NAL Call #: SF601.C66 Descriptors: foals, cryptosporidium, diarrhea, life-cycle, feces, screening, diagnosis, antiinfective-agents, antiinflammatory-agents, cryptosporidiosis, antiprotozoal-agents. 15. Cryptosporidiosis. Barr, F. J small anim pract. 38: 7 pp. 319-320. (July 1997). NAL Call #: 41.8-J8292 Descriptors: cryptosporidium, cryptosporidiosis, pathogenesis, symptoms, diagnosis, medical-treatment, zoonoses, disease-control. 16. Cryptosporidiosis and inflammatory bowel disease in a cat. Lappin, M. R., Dowers, K., Edsell, D., Taton Allen, G., and Cheney, J. Feline-pract. Santa Barbara, CA : Veterinary Practice Pub. Co., 1990-. May/June 1997. v. 25 (3) p. 10-13. NAL Call #: SF985.F4 Descriptors: cats, cryptosporidiosis, cryptosporidium-parvum, duodenum, inflammation, intestinal-diseases, symptoms, diagnosis, clindamycin, tylosin, drug-therapy, casereports, duodenitis. 17. Cryptosporidiosis in a tropical freshwater catfish (Plecostomus spp. ). Muench, T. R. and White, M. R. J vet diagn invest. 9: 1 pp. 87-90. (Jan 1997). NAL Call #: SF774.J68 Descriptors: freshwater-catfishes, aquarium-fishes, cryptosporidiosis, cryptosporidium, intestines, case-reports. 18. Cryptosporidiosis in mice in Argentina. Fernandez, P. E., Carbone, C., and Gimeno, E. J. Lab anim sci. 46: 6 pp. 685-686. (Dec 1996). NAL Call #: 410.9-P94 Descriptors: cryptosporidium, infections, organs, mice, zoonoses, laboratory-hazards, cryptosporidiosis. 19. Cryptosporidiosis in young ostrich chicks. Dhillon, A. S. and Lonning, S. Proc West Poult Dis Conf.: 45th pp. 316-317. (1996). NAL Call #: SF995.W4 20. Cryptosporidium : a waterborne pathogen. Avery, Barbara Kneen., Lemley, Ann., and Cornell University. Ithaca, NY : Cornell Univ., [1996]. NAL Call #: QL369.C59A94-1996 Descriptors: Cryptosporidium, Cryptosporidiosis, Water-quality. Abstract: Discusses cryptosporidium and the disease it causes, as well as steps to take to prevent the disease from occurring. 21. Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis. Cryptosporidiosis of man and animals. Fayer, R. Boca Raton : CRC Press, c1997. 251 p., [1] p. of plates : ill. (some col.). NAL Call #: RC136.5.C78--1997 Descriptors: Cryptosporidiosis, Cryptosporidium. 22. Cryptosporidium infection in a dugong (Dugong dugon). Hill, B. D., Fraser, I. R., and Prior, H. C. Aust vet j. 75: 9 pp. 670-671. (Sept 1997). NAL Call #: 41.8-Au72 Descriptors: dugong-dugon, cryptosporidium, cryptosporidiosis, small-intestine, histopathology, symptoms, case-reports, Queensland. 23. Cryptosporidium parvum infection in bovine neonates: dynamic clinical, parasitic and immunologic patterns. Fayer, R., Gasbarre, L., Pasquali, P., Canals, A., Almeria, S., and Zarlenga, D. Int j parasitol. 28: 1 pp. 49-56. (Jan 1998). NAL Call #: QH547.I55 Descriptors: calves, cryptosporidium-parvum, experimental-infections, cryptosporidiosis, excretion, cattle-dung, diarrhea, oral-administration, newborn-animals, cd4+lymphocytes, cd8+-lymphocytes, cell-mediated-immunity, ileum, gene-expression, messenger-rna, interferon, interleukins, intestinal-mucosa, lymph-nodes, t-lymphocytes, interleukin-12. 24. Cryptosporidium parvum infection of human intestinal epithelial cells induces the polarized secretion of C-X-C chemokines. Laurent, F., Eckmann, L., Savidge, T. C., Morgan, G., Theodos, C., Naciri, M., and Kagnoff, M. F. Infect-immun. Washington, D.C., American Society for Microbiology. Dec 1997. v. 65 (12) p. 5067-5073. NAL Call #: QR1.I57 25. Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts recovered from water by the membrane filter dissolution method retain their infectivity. Graczyk, T. K., Fayer, R., Cranfield, M. R., and Owens, R. J parasitol. 83: 1 pp. 111-114. (Feb 1997). NAL Call #: 448.8-J824 Abstract: Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts infectious to neonatal BALB/c mice were processed by the cellulose-acetate membrane (CAM) filter dissolution method to determine if the procedure that utilizes acetone incubation and alcohol centrifugations alters their viability (determined by in vitro excystation) or infectivity (determined by infectivity bioassay). In addition, most oocysts with altered viability by desiccation, heat inactivation, and snap freezing that were processed by the CAM filter dissolution method were nonrefractile, unstained oocyst ghosts. The remaining organisms, oocyst shells, were lightly stained with the acid-fast stain. Infectious oocysts retained their infectivity and nonviable oocysts (oocyst shells) retained their morphology when processed by the CAM dissolution method. Infectious oocysts, oocyst shells, and oocyst ghosts produced positive reactions of similar intensity in direct immunofluorescence antibody staining, utilizing the MERIFLUOR Cryptosporidium/Giardia test kit. Cryptosporidium oocysts Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts infectious to neonatal BALB/c mice were processed by the cellulose-acetate membrane (CAM) filter dissolution method to determine if the procedure that utilizes acetone incubation and alcohol centrifugations alters their viability (determined by in vitro excystation) or infectivity (determined by infectivity bioassay). In addition, most oocysts with altered viability by desiccation, heat inactivation, and snap freezing that were processed by the CAM filter dissolution method were nonrefractile, unstained oocyst ghosts. The remaining organisms, oocyst shells, were lightly stained with the acid-fast stain. Infectious oocysts retained their infectivity and nonviable oocysts (oocyst shells) retained their morphology when processed by the CAM dissolution method. Infectious oocysts, oocyst shells, and oocyst ghosts produced positive reactions of similar intensity in direct immunofluorescence antibody staining, utilizing the MERIFLUOR Cryptosporidium/Giardia test kit. Cryptosporidium oocysts recovered from finished drinking water by the CAM dissolution method can be subjected to testing for their viability and infectivity. 26. The cryptosporidium problem in water and food supplies. Donnelly, J. K. and Stentiford, E. I. Lebensm Wiss Technol. 30: 2 pp. 111-120. (1997). NAL Call #: TP368.L4 Descriptors: water-microbiology, water-quality, drinking-water, food-contamination, cryptosporidium. 27. Detection of Cryptosporidium muris oocysts in the faeces of adult dairy cattle in Scotland. Bukhari, Z. and Smith, H. V. Vet rec. 138: 9 pp. 207-208. (Mar 2, 1996). NAL Call #: 41.8-V641 Descriptors: dairy-cattle, cryptosporidium, oocysts, feces, detection, case-reports, scotland. 28. The detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in cistern water in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Crabtree, K. D., Ruskin, R. H., Shaw, S. B., and Rose, J. B. Water res. 30: 1 pp. 208-216. (Jan 1996). NAL Call #: TD420.W3 Descriptors: rain, drinking-water, water-supply, contamination, cryptosporidium, oocysts, giardia, cysts, detection, antibodies, public-health, risk-assessment, united-statesvirgin-islands, potable-water-supply. 29. Determining average concentrations of Cryptosporidium and other pathogens in water. Parkhurst, D. F. and Stern, D. A. Environ sci technol. 32: 21 pp. 3424-3229. (Nov 1, 1998). NAL Call #: TD420.A1E5 Descriptors: drinking-water, USA, New York. 30. Development of cellular immune functions in neonatal to weanling mice: relationship to Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Harp, J. A. and Sacco, R. E. J parasitol. 82: 2 pp. 245-249. (Apr 1996). NAL Call #: 448.8-J824 Descriptors: cryptosporidium-parvum, cryptosporidiosis, lymphocyte-transformation, cytokines, t-lymphocytes, phenotypes, spleen-cells, age-differences, interferon, interleukin-5, immune-response, disease-resistance, young-animals, mice. 31. The development of diagnostic PCR primers for Cryptosporidium using RAPDPCR. Morgan, U. M., O'Brien, P. A., and Thompson, R. C. A. Mol biochem parasitol. 77: 1 pp. 103-108. (Apr 1996). NAL Call #: QL757.M6 Descriptors: dna, genetic-polymorphism, polymerase-chain-reaction, diagnostictechniques, detection, protozoal-infections, random-amplified-polymorphic-dna, dnaprimers. 32. Differentiation between human and animal isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum using rDNA sequencing and direct PCR analysis. Morgan, U. M., Constantine, C. C., Forbes, D. A., and Thompson, R. C. A. J parasitol. 83: 5 pp. 825-830. (Oct 1997). NAL Call #: 448.8-J824 Descriptors: cryptosporidium-parvum, ribosomal-dna, dna-sequencing, polymerasechain-reaction, differentiation, nucleotide-sequences, genetic-variation, straindifferences, molecular-sequence-data. 33. DNA sequence encoding surface protein of Cryptosporidium parvum. Jenkins, M. C., Fayer, R., Tilley, M., and Upton, S. L. United States Department of Agriculture patents. [Washington, D.C.? : The Department, 1900?-. Jan 7, 1997. (5,591,434) 1 p. NAL Call #: aT223.V4A4 Descriptors: animals, cryptosporidiosis, disease-control, cryptosporidium-parvum, surface-proteins, recombinant-proteins, vaccines, genetic-code, gene-transfer, dna, nucleotide-sequences, patents, USDA, USA, us005591434a. 34. Effect of aqueous chlorine and oxychlorine compounds on Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Liyanage, L. R. J., Finch, G. R., and Belosevic, M. Environ sci technol. 31: 7 pp. 1992-1994. (July 1997). NAL Call #: TD420.A1E5 35. Effect of diethyldithiocarbamate on Cryptosporidium parvum infection in immunosuppressed rats. Rehg, J. E. J parasitol. 82: 1 pp. 158-162. (Feb 1996). NAL Call #: 448.8-J824 Descriptors: cryptosporidium-parvum, disulfiram, metabolites, immunomodulators, immunosuppression, rats, cryptosporidiosis, chemoprophylaxis, small-intestine, biliarysystem, large-intestine. 36. Effect of F-2 and T-2 fusariotoxins on experimental Cryptosporidium baileyi infection in chickens. Bekesi, L., Hornok, S., Szigeti, G., Dobos Kovacs, M., Szell, Z., and Varga, I. Int j parasitol. 27: 12 pp. 1531-1536. (Dec 1997). NAL Call #: QH547.I55 Descriptors: chickens, cryptosporidium-baileyi, cryptosporidiosis, pathogenesis, t-2toxin, zearalenone, oral-administration, dosage, oocysts, immunity, humoral-immunity, liveweight-gain, thymus-gland, bursa-fabricii, weight. 37. Effect of pasteurization on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water and milk. Harp, J. A., Fayer, R., Pesch, B. A., and Jackson, G. J. Appl environ microbiol. 62: 8 pp. 2866-2868. (Aug 1996). NAL Call #: 448.3-Ap5 Descriptors: cryptosporidium-parvum, oocysts, pasteurization, water, milk, infectivity, mice, bioassays, disease-control, foodborne-diseases, waterborne-diseases, sterilizing, high-temperature-short-time-pasteurization. Abstract: Cryptosporidium parvum is a major cause of diarrheal disease in humans and has been identified in 78 other species of mammals. The oocyst stage, excreted in feces of infected humans and animals, has been responsible for recent waterborne outbreaks of human cryptosporidiosis. High temperature and long exposure time have been shown to render oocysts (suspended in wafer) noninfectious, but for practical purposes, it is important to know if high-temperature-short-time conditions (71.7 degrees C for 15 s) used in commercial pasteurization are sufficient to destroy infectivity of oocysts. In this study, oocysts were suspended in either water or whole milk and heated to 71.7 degrees C for 15, 10, or 5 s in a laboratory-scale pasteurizer. Pasteurized and nonpasteurized (control) oocysts were then tested for the ability to infect infant mice. No mice (0 of 177) given 10(5) oocysts pasteurized for 15, 10, or 5 s in either water or milk were found to be infected with C. parvum on the basis of histologic examination of the terminal ileum. In contrast, all (80 of 80) control mice given nonpasteurized oocysts were heavily infected. These data indicate that high-temperature-short-time pasteurization is sufficient to destroy the infectivity of C. parvum oocysts in water and milk. 38. Effects of an allicin-based product on cryptosporidiosis in neonatal calves. Olson, E. J., Epperson, W. B., Zeman, D. H., Fayer, R., and Hildreth, M. B. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 212: 7 pp. 987-990. (Apr 1, 1998). NAL Call #: 41.8-Am3 Descriptors: calves, newborn-animals, cryptosporidiosis, cryptosporidium-parvum, veterinary-products, chemoprophylaxis, oocysts, experimental-infections, diarrhea, feces, liveweight-gain, disease-course, duration. 39. Effects of low temperatures on viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocytes. Fayer, R. and Nerad, T. Appl environ microbiol. 62: 4 pp. 1431-1433. (Apr 1996). NAL Call #: 448.3-Ap5 Descriptors: cryptosporidium-parvum, oocytes, viability, freezing, thawing, cold-storage, infectivity, bioassays, mice. Abstract: Microcentrifuge tubes containing 8 X 10(6) purified oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum suspended in 400 microliters of deionized water were stored at 5 degrees C for 168 h or frozen at -10, -15, -20, and -70 degrees C for 1 h to 168 h and then thawed at room temperature (21 degrees C). Fifty microliters containing 10(6) oocysts was administered to each of five to seven neonatal BALB/c mice by gastric intubation. Segments of ileum, cecum, and colon were taken for histology from each mouse 72 or 96 h later. Freeze-thawed oocysts were considered viable and infectious only when developmental-stage C. parvum organisms were found microscopically in the tissue sections. Developmental-stage parasites were not found in tissues from any mice that received oocysts frozen at -70 degrees C for 1, 8, or 24 h. All mice that received oocysts frozen at -20 degrees C for 1, 3, and 5 h had developmental-stage C. parvum; one of 6 mice that received oocysts frozen at -20 degrees C for 8 h had a few developmental-stage parasites; mice that received oocysts frozen at -20 degrees C for 24 and 168 h had no parasites. All mice that received oocysts frozen at -15 degrees C for 8 and 24 h had developmental-stage parasites; mice that received oocysts frozen at -15 degrees for 168 h had no parasites. All mice that received oocysts frozen at -10 degrees C for 8, 24, and 168 h and those that received oocysts stored at 5 degrees C for 168 h had developmental stage parasites. These findings demonstrate for the first time that oocysts of C parvum in water can retain viability and infectivity after freezing and that oocysts survive longer at higher freezing temperatures. 40. Effects of oral lactose and xylose loads on blood glucose, galactose, xylose, and insulin values in healthy calves and calves with diarrhea. Gutzwiller, A. and Blum, J. W. Am j vet res. 57: 4 pp. 560-563. (Apr 1996). NAL Call #: 41.8-Am3A Descriptors: calves, lactose, xylose, blood-sugar, galactose, blood, insulin, diarrhea, cryptosporidium, coronavirus, small-intestine, intestinal-absorption, metabolites,